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SuperCapacitor:

Supercapacitor also known as electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC), super condenser, pseudo capacitor, electrochemical double layer capacitor, or ultracapacitors, is an electrochemical capacitor with relatively high energy density. Compared to conventional electrolytic capacitors the energy density is typically on the order of hundreds of times greater. In comparison with conventional batteries or fuel cells, EDLCs also have a much higher power density.

In this article the use of super capacitors likes hybrid power supply for various applications is presented. The main application is in the field of automation. The specific Power of the super capacitors and its high lifetime (1 million of Cycles) makes it very attractive for the startup of the automobiles. Unfortunately, the specific energy of this component is very low. For that this technology is associated with battery to supply the starter alternator.

Introduction of Super Capacitor

Super capacitors also known as Electric double-layer capacitors, or electrochemical double layer capacitors (EDLCs), or ultracapacitors, are electrochemical capacitors that have an unusually high energy density when compared to common capacitors, typically on the order of thousands of times greater than a high capacity electrolytic capacitor. For instance, a typical electrolytic capacitor will have a capacitance in the range of tens of millifarads. The same size super capacitor would have a capacitance of several farads, an improvement of about two or three orders of magnitude in capacitance but usually at a lower working voltage. Larger, commercial electric doublelayer capacitors have capacities as high as 5,000farads.

In a conventional capacitor, energy is stored by the removal of charge carriers, typically electrons, from one metal plate depositing them on another. This charge separation creates a potential between the two plates, which can be harnessed in an external circuit. The total energy stored in this fashion increases with both the amount of charge stored and the Potential between the plates. The amount of charge stored per unit voltage is essentially a function of the size, the distance, and the material properties of the plates and the material in between the plates (the dielectric), while the potential between the plates is limited by breakdown of the dielectric. The dielectric controls the capacitor's voltage. Optimizing the material leads to higher energy density for a given size of capacitor.

EDLCs do not have a conventional dielectric. Rather than two separate plates separated by an intervening substance, these capacitors use "plates" that are in fact two layers of the same substrate, and their electrical properties, the so-called "electrical double layer", result in the effective separation of charge despite the vanishingly thin (on the order of nanometers) physical separation of the layers. The lack of need for a bulky layer of dielectric permits the packing of plates with much larger surface area into a given size, resulting in high capacitances in practical-sized packages.

Super capacitor technology is based the electric double layer phenomenon that has been understood for over a hundred years. However, it has only been exploited by commercial applications for about ten years. As in a conventional capacitor, in an ultracapacitor two conductors and a dielectric generate an electric field where energy is stored. The double layer is created at a solid electrode-solution interface - it is, then, essentially a charge separation that occurs at the interface between the solid and the electrolyte. Two charge layers are formed, with an excess of electrons on one side and an excess of positive ions on the other side. The polar molecules that reside in between form the dielectric. In most ultracapacitors, the electrode is carbon combined with an electrolyte. The layers that form the capacitor plate's boundaries, as well as the small space between them, create a very high capacitance. In addition, the structure of the carbon electrode, which is typically porous, increases the effective surface area to about 2000 m2/g

Green Technology Super Capacitors :

Activated carbon used is unsustainable and expensive. Biochar is viewed as a green solution to the activated carbon currently used in super capacitor electrodes. Unlike activated carbon, biochar is the byproduct of the pyrolysis process used to produce biofuels and it is nontoxic and will not pollute the soil when it is tossed out. Biochar costs almost half as much as activated carbon, and is more sustainable because it reuses the waste from biofuel production, a process with sustainable intentions to begin with.

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Electric drive vehicles can be thought of as mobile, self-contained, and-in the aggregate-highly reliable power resources. "Electric-drive vehicles" (EDVs) include three types: battery electric vehicles, the increasingly popular hybrids, and fuel-cell vehicles running on gasoline, natural gas, or hydrogen. All these vehicles have within them power electronics which generate clean, 60 Hz AC power, at power levels from 10kW (for the Honda Insight) to 100kW (for GM's EV1). When vehicle power is fed into the electric grid, we refer to it as "Vehicle-to-Grid" power, or V2G.

With the popularization of electric vehicles and the construction of charging stations, the understanding of people to the electric vehicle and the changing station is not only confined to the transportation and the "gas station". It is desired to exploit more extensive application. The concept of V2G was firstly brought out by Willet Kempton of the Delaware University. The initial goal of V2G was to provide peak power, that is, the electric vehicle owners charging the vehicles in low load with lower price and discharging the vehicles in peak load with higher price. Then, the vehicle owners can get the profits from the V2G project. The functions of the vehicle in power grid were expanded, and the conclusion was get that benefit of providing peak power is significantly less than providing auxiliary services to the power grid . The V2G research also was carried out in some other countries such as Denmark, Britain and Germany, etc .

Introduction of Vehicle-to-Grid V2G

The first V2G requirement is the power connection. Battery vehicles must already be connected to the grid inorder to recharge their batteries; to add V2G capability requires little or no modification to the charging station and no modification to the cables or connectors, but on board power electronics must be designed for this purpose had "zero incremental cost."

The second requirement for V2G is control, for the utility or system operator to request vehicle power exactly when needed. This is essential because vehicle power has value greater than the cost to produce it only if the buyer (the system operator) can determine the precise timing of dispatch. The automobile industry is moving towards making real-time communications a standard part of vehicles. This field, called "telematics" has already begun with luxury vehicles; over a period of time it will be available for most new car models. Whether using built-in vehicle telematics, or in the interim using add-on communications, the vehicle could receive a radio signal from the grid operator indicating when power is needed.

The third element of precision, certified, tamper-resistant metering, measures exactly how much power or ancillary services a vehicle did provide, and at which times. The telematics could again be used to transmit meter readings back to the buyer for credit to the vehicle owner's account

Thinking about the metering of V2G expands the usual concept of a "utility meter." Electronic metering and telemetric appear to have efficiency advantages in eliminating the meter reader, transfer of billing data to the central computer, and the monthly meter-read cycle. More unnerving, electronic metering and telemetric also eliminates the service address! An onboard meter would transmit its own serial number or account number with its readings, via telemetric, and presumably this would be billed in conjunction with a traditional metered account with a service address. A large-scale V2G system would automate accounting and reconciliation of potentially millions of small transactions, similar to the recording and billing of calls from millions of cellular phone customers.Thus the mobile metered KWhs or ancillary services wold be added or subtracted to the amount registered on the fixed meter to reconcile both billing amounts.

Concept Of V2G :

Figure schematically illustrates connections between vehicles and the electric power grid. Electricity flows one-way from generators through the grid to electricity users. Electricity flows back to the grid from EDVs, or with battery EDVs, the flow is two ways (shown in Fig. as lines with two arrow ). The control signal from the grid operator (labelled ISO, for Independent System Operator) could be a broadcast radio signal, or through a cell phone network, direct Internet connection, or power line carrier. In any case, the grid operator sends requests for power to a large number of vehicles.

The signal may go directly to each individual vehicle, schematically in the upper right of Fig. , or to the office of a fleet operator, which in turn controls vehicles in a single parking lot, schematically shown in the lower right of Fig. , or through a third-party aggregator of dispersed individual vehicles' power (not shown). (The grid operator also dispatches power from traditional central-station generators using a voice telephone call or a T1 line, not shown in Fig .)

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Bubble Power:

In sonofusion a piezoelectric crystal attached to liquid filled Pyrex flask send pressure waves through the fluid, exciting the motion of tiny gas bubbles. The bubbles periodically grow and collapse, producing visible flashes of light. The researchers studying these light emitting bubbles speculated that their interiors might reach such high temperature and pressure they could trigger fusion reaction. Tiny bubbles imploded by sound waves can make hydrogen nuclei fuse- and may one day become a revolutionary new energy source.

When a gas bubble in a liquid is excited by ultrasonic acoustic waves it can emit short flashes of light suggestive of extreme temperatures inside the bubble. These flashes of light known as sonoluminescence, occur as the bubble implode or cavitates. It is show that chemical reactions occur during cavitations of a single, isolated bubble and yield of photons, radicals and ions formed. That is gas bubbles in a liquid can convert sound energy in to light.

Sonoluminescence also called single-bubble sonoluminescence involves a single gas bubble that is trapped inside the flask by a pressure field. For this loud speakers are used to create pressure waves and for bubbles naturally occurring gas bubbles are used. These bubbles can not withstand the excitation pressures higher than about 170 kilopascals. Pressures higher than about 170 kilopascals would always dislodge the bubble from its stable position and disperse it in the liquid. A pressure at least ten times that pressure level to implode the bubbles is necessary to trigger thermonuclear fusion. The idea of sonofusion overcomes these limitations.

Introduction of Bubble Power

Sonofusion is technically known as acoustic inertial confinement fusion. In this we have a bubble cluster (rather than a single bubble) is significant since when the bubble cluster implodes the pressure within the bubble cluster may be greatly intensified. The centre of the gas bubble cluster shows a typical pressure distribution during the bubble cluster implosion process. It can be seen that, due to converging shock waves within the bubble cluster, there can be significant pressure intensification in the interior of the bubble cluster. This large local liquid pressure (P>1000 bar) will strongly compress the interior bubbles with in the cluster, leading to conditions suitable for thermonuclear fusion. More over during the expansion phase of the bubble cluster dynamics, coalescence of some of interior bubbles is expected, and this will lead to the implosion of fairly large interior bubbles which produce more energetic implosions.

The apparatus consists of a cylindrical Pyrex glass flask 100 m.m. in high and 65m.m.in diameter. A lead-zirconate-titanate ceramic piezoelectric crystal in the form of a ring is attached to the flask's outer surface. The piezoelectric ring works like the loud speakers in a sonoluminescence experiment, although it creates much stronger pressure waves. When a positive voltage is applied to the piezoelectric ring, it contracts; when the voltage is removed, it expands to its original size.

The flask is then filled with commercially available deuterated acetone (C 3 D 6 O), in which 99.9 percent of the hydrogen atoms in the acetone molecules are deuterium (this isotope of hydrogen has one proton and one neutron in its nucleus). The main reason to choose deuterated acetone is that atoms of deuterium can undergo fusion much more easily than ordinary hydrogen atoms. Also the deuterated fluid can withstand significant tension (stretching) without forming unwanted bubbles. The substance is also relatively cheap, easy to work with, and not particularly hazardous.

Applications :

• Thermonuclear fusion gives a new, safe, environmental friendly way to produce electrical energy.

• This technology also could result in a new class of low cost, compact detectors for security applications. That use neutrons to probe the contents of suitcases.

• Devices for research that use neutrons to analyze the molecular structure of materials.

• Machines that cheaply manufacture new synthetic materials and efficiently produce tritium, which is used for numerous applications ranging from medical imaging to watch dials.

A new technique to study various phenomenons in cosmology, including the working of neutron star and black holes.

With the steady growth of world population and with economic progress in developing countries, average electricity consumption per person has increased significantly.

There fore seeking new sources of energy isn't just important, it is necessary. So for more than half a century, thermonuclear fusion has held out the promise of cheap clean and virtually limitless energy. Unleashed through a fusion reactor of some sort, the energy from 1 gram of deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, would be equivalent to that produced by burning 7000 liters of gasoline. Deuterium is abundant in ocean water, and one cubic kilometer of seawater could, in principle, supply all the world's energy needs for several hundred years.

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Humans have designed robots for making our tasks easier and simpler. These robots have been used in factories and even at homes as they can work tirelessly everyday and every time and that too without the need of money and food. Till now, no one has ever developed a robot that has the basic human emotions like crying, singing, laughing, dancing, affectionate, angriness, and so on. Of course, we have seen such robots in movies (Bicentennial Man). but in real life…not a chance!!

But, recently, some technicians at the National University of Singapore developed a robot prototype called Lovotics that can express all these feelings. This robot has the ability to love and to be loved by humans. To develop such a machine, all they did was create a new robot with human behaviour by adding all humanly similar biological and emotional tools.

This may sound complicated, but all the complex hormones that are responsible for a human to get emotions and feelings are given to the robot. These artificial hormones include dopamine, serotonine, oxytocin and endorphin. Apart from these hormones, artificial intelligence process was also conducted to pass on brain signals using MRI scans so that the robots get a better idea on when to react for any kind of emotion.

The robot is taught well to interact with other humans and create emotions like laughter and many more at the right moment, according to the behaviour of the human it is interacting with. During this interaction, touching another analog to affectionate human interaction is very important. .

Just like any other robot, this one will also have the basic structural materials like a a processor with controller and wireless board, a flexible structure, batteries, touch sensors, microphones, an omni-directional base, servo motors, speakers and also LED’s.

A detailed explanation of the basic structure of Lovtics is given in the video below. The comparison between human-ti-human-behaviour and Lovotics-to-human behaviour is well descripted.

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Thermometer using 8051.

This article is about a simple 0-100°C digital thermometer with 1°C resolution using 8051. The circuit is based on LM35 analog temperature sensor, ADC0804 and AT89S51 microcontroller. LM35 is an analogue temperature sensor IC which can measure a temperature range of -55 to 150°C. Its output voltage varies 10mV per °C change in temperature.

For example, if the temperature is 32°C, the output voltage will be 32 x 10mV = 320mV. ADC 0804 is used to convert the analogue output voltage of the LM35 to a proportional 8 bit digital value suitable for the microcontroller. The microcontroller accepts the output of ADC, performs necessary manipulations on it and displays it numerically on a 2 digit seven segment LED display.
Out put of the LM35 is connected to the +Vin (pin 6) of the ADC0804. Resistor R13 and preset R14 is used to provide an external reference voltage of 1.28V to the Vref/2 pin ( pin 9) of the ADC0804 and with this reference voltage, the step size of the ADC will be 10mV and span will be 0-1 V. This means that for a 10mV input the digital out of ADC will be 1 (1 in decimal also), for 20mV it will be 10 (2 in decimal), for 30mV it will be 11 (3 in decimal) and so on. The microcontroller accepts this data and puts it on the seven segment display.

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Get Ready to Fire Laser From Your Body

laser cell construction

Cyclops, a superhero from the famous comics “X men” has been the favorite of many people across the world. In the story, the character produces powerful laser beams by optical blast from his eyes. This fiction has become a reality by the joint efforts of Seok-Hyun Yun and Malte Gather, two physicists at Massachusetts General Hospital.

They were able to develop a technique by which laser can be produced from human cells. The device used to produce this laser consists of the same components that are used to produce a real time laser. That is, a pump source, an optical cavity and a gain medium. The pump source is used to produce the initial energy, the optical cavity to concentrate the energy, and the gain medium is a substance in which the electrons are exited until they go from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.

microscopic view of laser cell

The researchers began experimenting on human kidney cells to produce green florescent proteins (GFP). This substance is known to produce luminance in jellyfish. Many steps were carried out to produce the laser. They began by placing the modified cell between two mirrors there by creating an optical cavity (a cell sandwich as called by researchers). Then a blue light pulse was passed through the cell and the light bounced between the mirrors, causing the cell to glow. When the cell was observed through a microscope, they saw that the cell was glowing with a spot of laser.

Researchers suggest that this laser is suitable for many medical applications. For the diagnosis of diseases, nowadays a laser beam is passed into the body to get images or to attack the disease causing cells. There might also be a time when the human cells can be illuminated as laser. The illuminated cells can gather more information about the interior of the human body by penetrating the damaged tissues more deeply. More research has to be done to realize this as laser needs an external light source to illuminate. Some say that this technology will be more useful in gaining information about individual cell characteristics than medical applications as the laser needs an external light source and it is difficult to produce it inside human body. Yen suggests that by integrating a nano scale cavity to laser cell we can produce a cell that will illuminate itself without any external source. Let’s hope that this technology will come into reality in the near future itself – who doesn’t want to shoot a laser from our own body!!

World’s Smallest Electronic Circuit Using Nanotechnology

Smallest Electronic Circuit

Technology has been evolving time to time, from complex wired circuits to Integrated circuits(IC). Nowadays almost all electronic gadgets like smart phones, computers, global positioning systems(GPS), tablets and so on use Integrated circuits as they are more compact and efficient. In this era of nanotechnology, scientists are scaling every possible technology to nano scale without compromising its efficiency. Nano circuits were made by scaling Electronic circuits in the nano range, and that too, by rectifying the disadvantages of Integrated circuits like heat dissipation.

Recently a team of researchers headed by Guillaume Gervais of McGill’s Physics department and Mike Lilly from Sandia National Laboratories successfully developed one of the world’s smallest electronic circuits. It consisted of only two wires separated by a distance of 15 nanometers. The distance is so small that it counts up to only 150 atoms!!

On further studies, the researchers observed that a charge on one wire induces a charge on the other. This charge induced on the second wire may be positive or negative irrespective of the first wire. That is, the current flowing through both wires can be in the same or opposite direction. This experiment based on Quantum physics gave the researchers an idea about the behavior of electronic circuits in nano scale.

In case of nano circuits, heat dissipation is tremendously reduced. Although heat dissipation occurs, since the wires are very close, the heat dissipated by one will be absorbed by the other. In nano scale, electronic interactions between circuits become very complex, since a phenomenon called Coulomb drag occurs where current in one wire induces a voltage in the other wire by coulomb interactions alone. Nano circuits are economic if manufactured in large quantities.

The major institutions that funded this research were Natural science and Engineering research council of Canada, the Fonds de recherché Nature et technologies of Quebec, the Canadian Institute of advanced research and the center of Integrated Nanotechnologies at Sandia National laboratories.

Satellite Surgery Robot Developed to Repair Satellites

da Vinci console

Artificial satellites placed in orbits are used for a variety of purposes like communication, GPS, military applications, TV broadcasting, and so on. No matter how much time and money has been spent on building these hi-tech devices, satellites are basically just machines, and constant use can damage any machine. Every year NASA is spending millions of dollars just for the maintenance of these satellites, but they have not found a feasible way to repair a damaged one. Till present, there was only one option left for the researchers –completely blow–off the satellite!!They could not find any other feasible method to repair it. They tried using manpower by sending them directly to the repair site. This turned out to be a bad idea, as they could not adapt themselves to the outer space characteristics.

NASA had to face a lot of criticism for blowing up satellites in outer space. Since a single satellite contains millions of electronic equipments, blowing them off would literally mean the disposal of e- waste all over the outer space. These toxic wastes could bring serious threats to humans by affecting the Earth’s atmosphere in the coming future.

A remotely operated robot could easily do the job but controlling of the robot will be a difficult task. Precise controlling of the robot is necessary, as things are different in outer space.

Engineers at John Hopkins University are known for designing robots for medical purposes. They have created various robots that were used in medical transplants and other complex surgeries. Currently they are working on a project in which a medical surgery robot called da Vinci console is transformed into a robot that can be used for repairing satellites.

A brief description of this robotic surgery project has been presented by two graduate students Tian Xia and Jonathan Bohren from John Hopkins’ Homewood campus . In this demonstration, researchers showed how the da Vinci console, which was used for the treatment of cancer was modified as a satellite-repairing robot. It consists of a 3D eyepiece by which the operator can remotely control the robot. By using the 3D eye piece the user gets a better vision which helps him to repair with ease .

It also includes a touch or haptic feedback to the operator. With the technology the user gets to know the exact amount of force, vibration or motion applied to the machine through computer stimulation.

This robot was successfully tested on 29th November 2011. The modified da Vinci console was used to control an Industrial robot at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Centre about 30 miles away . This test was successful and researchers concluded that they could use it in space mission too. The most challenging problem is that the satellites are travelling in an orbit and thus, prone to time delay for signal reception. Researchers may have used special algorithms to refine this problem. The robot can also be used for refueling satellites.

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Augmented Reality (AR) Technology

Introduction

Since the early 70′s video games have been a great entertainment for all of us. With the recent boom in technology, computer graphics has been so advanced that graphic games are being introduced into the real world surroundings. The photo reality is mind boggling to such an extent that you feel that the games have been plucked out of your display monitors and integrated into your surroundings. Not only the video part, but also sound and also other sense enhancements are integrated into the real world. Such a technology is called Augmented Reality, which clearly makes us doubt whether what we see, hear, smell and feel is real or not.

What is Augmented Reality (AR)?

Augmented Reality [AR] can actually be defined as the integration of graphics into the physical real world without a single change in the perspective, that is every image shown will be adjusted to every angle of movement of the user’s head and eyes. Thus a widely produced graphics in augmented reality will surely enhance everyone’s perception of the real world.

Thus AR is a combination of three factors. They are

Real and virtual world.

Interaction in the real time.

3D world.

With the wide use of AR, the entire view of the world will surely change. Just think of yourself, sitting at home, while an exact replica of yourself walking through the streets. When you view such a person’s image the audio will coincide with the image automatically. The changes will be made continuously to reflect the movements of your view. Such applications are most commonly seen nowadays in smart phones.

Technology

To know the technology used in AR it is necessary to know the basic components used in Augmented Reality. There are four basic components used in AR. They are

1. Display

2. Tracking and Orientation

3. Portable Computer

4. Software

These four components are combined together to make a highly efficient AR device. Devices like high speed multi-processors, high resolution cameras, accelerometers and are also used to enhance the reliability of the AR equipped device.

Now let us learn about each component in detail.

1. Displays

Tree types of displays are used in AR technology. They are

Head Mounted Displays [HMD]

This device keeps both the images of the real physical world and the virtual graphical world over the user’s world view. HMD are either an optically transparent or video transparent device. In an optically transparent display device, partial silver mirrors are used to pass the views of the real world through a lens. At the same time the virtual images are reflected into the user’s eyes. A 6-degrees of freedom [dof] sensor must be used to track the HMD device. Such a tracking method helps in relating the virtual world to the real world.

Some basic products that use such displays are Sony Glasstron, Microvision NOMAD and so on.

Handheld Displays

Such displays are small in size and will easily fit in one hand. These devices use video transparent techniques to relate the virtual world to the real world. Here also 6-degrees of freedom [dof] sensors are used apart from devices like GPS trackers, and digital compasses. This display technology is the biggest success for Augmented Reality till now. Since they are easily portable and due to the bulk use of camera phones, they are used widely.

Spatial Displays / Spatial Augmented Reality [SAR]

This is very different from the other two techniques explained above. There is no need t carry the display, instead, the graphical image is related to physical objects by using a digital projector. The only problem is that the user will have no contacts with the display.

The main advantage of such a device when compared to other displays is that the user doesn’t have to carry the equipment along with him. Thus the users can easily see each other’s faces. Since a projector system is used, these displays have better resolution than the others. The resolution can be further increased by expanding the display area by using more projectors.

2. Tracking and Orientation

As the name refers, tracking and orientation is needed to know the user’s exact location in comparison to his surroundings and also is used for tracking the exact eye and head movements of the user. This is the most complex part of the Augmented Reality technology as three major functions such as tracking the overall location, movement of the user’s head and eye and adjusting the graphics to be displayed are done with utmost precaution. There has not been a single system than can produce AR without a small delay between the real world and the graphical world till now.

3. Portable Computer

For this technology to sustain, the computers used must have high speed processors. Even now, the computers used for this purpose, does not have enough efficiency. For using 3-D graphics in systems, the configuration must be high end.

Applications

Here are some of the applications of AR in different fields.

Gaming and Entertainment

This is the biggest field in which AR has really made progress in. The games can be enhanced to such an extent that the user will fell like he is one of the characters of the game. Even movies can be watched with such enthusiasm as you will feel that the characters are walking past you.

Education

AR system can be greatly helpful to students as it can be used to re-create historic events of great importance in relation to its real time background. Thus the students will have a better idea of all the facts in life, providing them with a better education.

Security and Defence

AR technology helps in giving the soldiers in the field vital information about their surroundings, friendly troops and also the movement of their enemies. Even police officers will have a great help from such a technology as they have a complete and inmost view of a crime scene or robbery.

Medicine

During a medical operation, AR technology can be used to provide the doctor a better sensory perception of the patient’s body.

Thus, the risk factor involved in an operation can be greatly reduced and the efficiency can be increased. The technology can also be used to provide the patient’s medical records digitally in page wise manner, immediately after an X-ray or MRI, so that a quick decision can be taken.

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Working of Facial Recognition System

We have seen the use of facial recognition technology in many movies. A photo of the person to be identified will be obtained from some hidden camera. It will then be run in through the police database so as to find a match with their existing records. At last a match will be found and the criminal will be caught red handed. Though this may seem fascinating in movies, it may not be the same in real world.

The facial recognition system was equipped in cameras and was placed in some streets so as to cut down the number of crimes in the area. But, the technology failed to provide results as the people around the streets wore masks, prohibiting the cameras from getting a clear enough shot to identify anyone.

The facial recognition software’s have been upgraded well enough to provide 99% accuracy at present. In this post, we will discuss about the origin of this technology and also their enhancing capabilities for both governmental and personal use.

From the phrase facial recognition, it is understood that the software used for this purpose mainly recognizes a number of distinguished features of the face. All the features added together make almost 80 nodal points. The software used for facial recognition recognizes and distinguishes the face from its background by some of the common nodal points given below.

Distance between the eyes

Nose width

Depth of the eye sockets

Cheekbone shape

Length of jaw-line

The above nodal points are measured altogether to provide a common numerical code known as the face print.

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Working of 3-D TV

3-D Technology

Television has been one of the biggest entertainments since its invention. From its evolution in black and white format, the television technology has later developed to bring colour visuals in CRT displays and later LCD, LED and also Plasma. Nowadays we can get TV’s that is almost 61-inches wide and that too with a very small thickness. The visuals are also in High-def format, which is so clear that we feel like sitting in front of it the whole time.

With later developments in the TV technology, one question arises in our minds…WHAT’S NEXT??

The answer is clear…3-D technology!!

The surprising factor about 3-D Technology is that it was first tried in the year 1922 for a movie called “The Power of Love”. Since then people have been trying to develop the technology. During the 1950′s movie producers were trying to attract people into theatres. For that, they also tried to simulate shock in the audience seats while showing a horror film. Apart from this the movies were shown in 3-D format to bring the pictures live. All the audience had to do was to wear a pair of glasses.

After the release of major movies like Avatar, Clash of the Titans, Up in the Air and so n in the 3-D format, even TV manufacturers decided to make 3-D TV’s for home purpose from the year 2009.

A 3-D image is obtained by displaying different images to each eye. This when joined by the brain, will produce an illusion of a 3-D image. This method is called stereoscopy.

Thus a 3-D TV is a special television that has various methods to deploy 3-D images so that people can experience a realistic 3-D field.

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Water level controller circuit

Description.

A simple but very reliable and effective water level controller circuit diagram is shown here. The circuit uses 6 transistors, 1 NE555 timer IC, a relay and few passive components. The circuit is completely automatic which starts the pump motor when the water level in the over head tank goes below a preset level and switches OFF the pump when the water level in the over head tank goes above the full level.
Probe D is positioned at the bottom level of the tank while probes A, B and C are placed at full, half and medium levels of the tank respectively. The level sensing part of the circuit is built around transistors Q1, Q2 and Q3. When water level is below the quarter level probes A, B and C are open and the transistor Q1, Q2 and Q3 remains OFF. When the water level rises and touches the probes the corresponding transistors gets biased and switches ON. Resistors R1, R2, R3 limit the bases current of corresponding transistors while resistors R4, R5, R6 limit their collector current. LEDs D1, D2 and D3 provide a visible indication of the current water level.
When the water level goes below medium, transistor Q2 gets switches OFF and its collector goes positive. Collector of Q2 is connected to the base of transistor Q6 and as result transistor Q6 gets switched ON. Transistor Q5 will be also ON because its base in connected to the collector of Q4 which is presently OFF. As a result when the water level goes below medium relay K1 gets energized and the pump is driven. The relay is wired in the latching mode so that even if the water level goes above medium level the pump remains ON so that the tank gets completely filled. For wiring the relay in latching mode one set of N/O contacts is used. When relay is activated these contacts close which forms a short across collector and emitter of Q6. This makes the state of Q6 irrelevant to the operation of the relay and the relay remains ON as long as the transistor Q5 is ON. The only way to make the relay OFF is by switching OFF Q5 and it is done automatically when the water level reaches the full level.
Collector of transistor Q1 is connected to the trigger pin (pin2) of IC1. When the water level reaches full level the transistor Q1 gets switched ON. As a result its collector goes to ground level which triggers the IC1 which is wired as a monostable. The output of IC1 goes high for about 1S. This makes the transistor Q4 ON for the same time and transistor Q5 whose base is connected to the collector of Q4 is switched OFF cutting the supply to the relay. This makes the motor OFF and it remains OFF until the water level again goes below the medium level.
Resistor R8 is a pull up resistor for the trigger pin of the NE555. Capacitor C3 couples the collector of Q1 to the trigger pin of NE555 and facilitates edge triggering whenever the transistor Q1 goes ON. A monostable circuit can be made edge triggered by connecting the trigger signal to the trigger input pin through a capacitor. The capacitor blocks DC and passes sudden changes. The circuit used here is termed as negative edge triggered because the monostable is triggered when ever the trigger input signal falls. R10 and R12 limits the collector current of Q4 and Q5 respectively while R9 and R11 limits their base current. R13 limits the base current of Q6 while D4 is a freewheeling diode which protects the switching transistors from voltage transients.

Circuit diagram.

Water level controller circuit diagram

Probe arrangement diagram

The probes can be arranged as shown in the diagram above. Insulated Aluminium wires can be used as the probes. The probes can be binded on a plastic rod and should be erected vertically inside the tank. The length of the probes wires and the supporting plastic rod must be chosen according to the depth of the tank. Since DC is used in the level sensing section electrolysis will occur in the probes and so the probes require small maintenances in 1 or 2 month intervals. Using AC in the sensing section will completely eliminates the chance of electrolysis and I am presently working on such a circuit. You can expect it soon.
Notes.
Use 12V DC for powering the water level controller circuit.
The relay I used was a 5V/220 ohm relay and that’s why the current limits resistor R12 was added in the circuit. If you use a 12V relay then the R12 can be shorted.
Do not use a relay that consumes 500mA. Maximum collector current PN2222 can handle is 600mA.
Use insulated single strand aluminium wires for probe and they can be arranged in the tank as per the probe arrangement diagram.
Use a holder for mounting NE555.
The circuit can be assembled on a Perf board.
K1 must be a double pole relay.
The load current, voltage ratings of the relay must be selected according to the ratings of the pump motor.
The type number of the transistors used here are not very critical and you can do suitable replacements if any type number is not available.
Most of the components required for this project can be found inside your scrap box.

Power supply for this circuit.

12V DC power supply
A classic 12V regulated DC supply based on 7812 is shown above. A power ON indicator LED is also added in the circuit.Resistor R13 limits the LED current. A small aluminium heatsink can be fitted to
the 7812 for better saftey.Small Al heatsinks for TO-220 package are readily available in the market.

Electronic mosquito repeller

Description.

Here is the circuit diagram of an ultrasonic mosquito repeller.The circuit is based on the theory that insects like mosquito can be repelled by using sound frequencies in the ultrasonic (above 20KHz) range.The circuit is nothing but a PLL IC CMOS 4047 wired as an oscillator working at 22KHz.A complementary symmetry amplifier consisting of four transistor is used to amplify the sound.The piezo buzzer converts the output of amplifier to ultrasonic sound that can be heard by the insects.
Circuit diagram with Parts list.

Notes.
Assemble the circuit on a general purpose PCB.
The circuit can be powered from 12V DC.
The buzzer can be any general purpose piezo buzzer.
The IC1 must be mounted on a holder.

making a Rheostat

I have already explained in detail the working of a rheostat. To know more about the component click on the link below.
TAKE A LOOK : POTENTIOMETER AND RHEOSTAT – WORKING AND COMPARISON
Although the below explained process is not applicable for any electronic circuits, you will clearly get a clear idea on how a rheostat works.
Components
The components needed for the connection are
Flashlight bulb and socket [1]
Dry cell lantern battery/D-cell battery [2]
Wire [About 15 to 17 inches and another one 2 inches]
Spring [1]
Wire Clippers [A pair]
A typical spring can be obtained from a widow roll up. You can even get to buy one at a cheap rate.
Procedure
Connect the two Dry cell lantern/D-cell batteries tail-to-tail, so that the positive polarity of one battery is connected to the negative polarity of the other.
Using a wire cutter, cut the wire in equal lengths. One wire should be at least 8 centimetres long.
Connect the wires onto the open ends of both the batteries.
The end of one wire must be connected to the bulb socket with the bulb in it.
Connect the second wire to one end of the long spring.
Connect the free end of one wire to one terminal of the light socket.
Connect the other free wire to one end of the spring.
Take the two inch wire and connect it to the second terminal of bulb socket.
Connect the other end of the two inch wire onto the other end of the spring.
How to make a Rheostat

How to make a Rheostat
What happens?
As soon as the circuit is in closed loop, the bulb begins to glow. Although the glow intensity is less, when you move the wire through the spring onto the other end where the wire is connected, the bulb starts to glow more brightly. When both the wires are nearby the glow will be in its maximum.
The spring is mainly made of steel wire. Steel wires are not very good conductors of electricity. Thus the resistance of the circuit also increases. If the spring length is long enough you will get to see different stages of the glow. Thus you will get to see the working of a rheostat.

Wireless Power Transmission

Most of us at home maybe using multi-plug to connect all the electronic devices with power cords. You may have even got confused to get the right cord for unplugging it among the other cords that lead to the same outlet.
At last you pull one out and hope that it is the right one. This is one of the main problems with electric connections. Though it makes the life of people simpler, it can also cause more clutter in the method. It may not be a big problem for us. But think about the electric stations where hundreds of wires run from the same outlet. For them, it is a problem.
As a part of the upgrade in technology and also the above reasons, researchers have started developing methods to transmit electricity to devices wirelessly. Though the method may sound completely new, the basic idea behind this theory was first proposed by Nicola Tesla in the early 1900′s. He was also able to release a prototype by transmitting power to lights that were kept in the ground at his Colorado Springs experiment station.
Though the first prototype received wide applause, the method was not practical enough for a higher range of its application. After years of research, many theories about this matter were discussed and some prototypes were also released. Some of them were not recognized while some of them are already in use. The best example for such a device is the electric toothbrush.
There are many types of wireless data transferring mediums in this world. Some of the most common ones are infrared, radio waves, bluetooth, and so on. In all these technologies, the signals will be scattered into space before they are received by the corresponding devices. The same method cannot be used for transferring electricity as it is power consuming and dangerous.
The main principle that is used in electric toothbrush is called Inductive Coupling. The basic idea is that a magnetic field is induced when an electric current flows through a wire. The magnetic field will be circular in shape and will flow around the wire. When another coil is placed in the same magnetic field, a current will be induced in the wire. This is the same principle that is used in a transformer and also in the electric brush. A magnetic field is created inside the brush through the current that moves through the coil inside the charger. When the brush is connected to the charger, another current will be produced in another coil, due to the magnetic field. This current is supplied to the battery which is the input for the brush.
But this method is not practical when it comes to transmitting energy to longer distances. For such a method, it is necessary that the coils are close enough to each other so that the small magnetic field is produced. When it comes to longer distance transmission, a very big magnetic field is to be produced and the coil turnings should be multiple. Counter measures should be taken to save the energy wasted due to the flow of magnetic field in different directions. This is practically impossible. A much better method and its explanation are given below.

Resonance and Wireless Power

Some researchers at MIT found a better way to transmit power between coils that are kept a few metres apart. They also claimed to increase the distance between the coils by adding resonance to the equation.
Resonance can be defined as the frequency of a device when it vibrates naturally. The resonance of a device greatly depends on the size and shape of it. The frequency is called the resonant frequency. The vibration at resonant frequency can be easily obtained. But vibration at other frequencies is difficult.

Wireless Power Transmission
According to the researchers, when the magnetic fields have the same resonation around the coils, the current will be induced in a different manner. The theory was proved by placing a curved wire coil as an inductor along with a capacitance plate at each end of the coil. This plate is responsible for holding the charge. When current is passed through the coil it starts resonating. The frequency of resonation can be calculated by the equation given below.
Resonant Frequency = Inductance of the Coil x Capacitance of the Plates
Apart from the principle in a toothbrush, the electricity will be flowing through an electromagnetic wave and will move from one coil to another, until they have the same resonant frequency. For different resonating frequencies, there will not be any transmission. But transmission is also possible from one transmitter to multiple receivers as long as the former and the latter have the same resonant frequency.
The coils being far apart there is no need to worry about the fields around them colliding with each other. Their most successful prototype had a light bulb that was powered from a distance of 2 metres wirelessly. They also formulated some theories regarding wireless electrical transmission through very long distances. It is explained below.

Long Distance Wireless Power Transmission

The first experiment for long distance wireless power transmission was carried out by the Communications Research Centre in Canada during the year 1980. They designed an unmanned plane by the name Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP). This plane could not only fly from one point to another, but could also fly in circles at a height if 21 kilometres away from the ground with a radius of 1 kilometre. It was also designed to fly without rest or battery backup for months.

Stationary High Altitude Relay Platform (SHARP)
The main idea behind the SHARP technology is a large ground-based microwave transmitter. The plane will fly only in the range of the transmitter. The signal from the transmitter will be received by a disc-shaped rectifying antenna called the rectenna, which is placed behind the wings of the plane. This signal will then be converted into DC current. The antenna is usually of the dipole type, that is, it has positive as well as negative poles. When the signal hits the antenna, they will be transferred to a series of diodes. These diodes behave like switches and allow the electrons to flow in unidirection. These electrons are then passed onto the rectenna’s circuitry. The electrons are then shifted to the other parts of the plane.

Nanoelectronics

Nanoelectronics are based on the application of nanotechnology in the field of electronics and electronic components. Although the term Nanoelectronics may generally mean all the electronic components, special attention is given in the case of transistors. These transistors have a size lesser than 100 nanometres. Visibly, they are very small that separate studies have to be made for knowing the quantum mechanical properties and inter-atomic design. As a result, though the transistors appear in the nanometre range, they are designed through nanotechnology. Their design is also very much different from the traditional transistors and usually falls in the category of one dimensional nanotubes/nanowires, hybrid molecular electronics, or advanced molecular electronics.
This technology is said to be the next future, but its practicality is near to impossible even now that they may be difficult to emerge soon.

Basic Concept of Nanoelectronics

Although a nanoelectronic device can be made fully functional, the work load it can do is restricted to its size. The basic principle is that the power of a machine will increase according to the increase in volume, but the amount of friction that the machine’s bearings hold will depend on the surface area of the machine.
For the small size of the nanoelectronic device cannot be used for the moving of heavy load like a mechanical device. If such a task is tried, it will fail as the available power will be easily overcome by the frictional forces. So, it is sure that these devices have limitations in real world applications.

Different Approaches to Nanoelectronics

Nanofabrication
This method is used to design arrays or layers of nanoelectronic device to work for a single operation. Nanoelectromechanical systems are also a part of nanofabrication.
Nanomaterials electronics
In Nanoelectronics, the transistors are packed as arrays on to a single chip. Thus they remain in a uniform manner and symmetrical in nature. Thus they are known to have a more speedy movement of electrons in the material. The dielectric constant of the device also increases and the electron or hole characteristics also become symmetrical in nature.
Some of the devices that have been developed with the help of Nanoelectronics and its future applications are listed below.
Nanoradio
Nanocomputers
The conventional computers with a big processor will be replaced with Nanocomputers with nanoprocessors that will have higher performance and speed than the conventional computers. Researchers are performing various experiments on by using nanolithographic methods to design better nanoprocessors. Experiments are also taking place by replacing the CMOS components in conventional processors with nanowires. The FET’s in the computers are replaced by carbon nanotubes.
Energy production
The devices using Nanoelectronics technology also includes solar cells that are highly efficient and cheaper than the conventional ones. If such efficient solar energy can be created it would be a revolution to the global energy needs.
Using the technology, researchers are developing a generator for energy production in vivo called bio-nano generators. Basically, the generator is an electrochemical device which is designed in nanoscale size. It works like a fuel cell which generates the power by absorbing the blood glucose in a living body. The glucose will be separated from the body with the help of an enzyme. This enzyme separates the glucose from the electrons and makes them useful for generating power.
The power generated through such a device will be only a few watts as the body itself needs some glucose for its normal functioning. This small power can be used to power up devices placed inside the body like pacemakers or sugar-fed nanorobots.

latest seminar topics for ece

TV remote jammer

Description.

Here is the circuit diagram of simple but highly effective TV remote jammer circuit. Most of the TV remotes have 38KHz operating frequency. A flood of IR beams in the same frequency can easily confuse the TV receiver and this is the operating principle of our jammer. The circuit is nothing but an astable multivibrator based on NE555 IC. The output of NE555 is amplified using a PNP transistor SK100 to drive the IR LEDs. Not only TV remotes, but any IR remotes operating in the 38KHz frequency region can be also jammed by using this circuit.

Circuit diagram.

Notes.
The circuit can be assembled on a Vero board.
Use a 9V PP3 battery for powering the circuit.
Mount the IC on a holder.
POT R4 can be adjusted to exactly match the jammer’s frequency to the remotes frequency. This adjustment is very essential for effective jamming.

Contact Lenses with “The Terminator” Mode!!

In the movie “The Terminator”, we see Arnold Schwarzenegger check out the complete profile of the subject he is about to face. A similar technology has been developed by Babak Parviz, an electrical engineer at the University of Washington.
Babak designed a lens that can be used to display a single pixel at a time. This display can be switched on and turned off through a wireless medium. The lens consists of an IC which stores the energy, along with an LED that shoots the light towards the eyes. But, the lens is not capable of intercepting objects that are very close to the eye. This problem is overcome by placing some counter lenses in between the LED and the eye. The same principle can be simply tested by placing an appropriate magnifying glass to see your finger that is placed very near to your eye.
Till now, the lens has only been designed to display one pixel. But, there may be a time when you could use the lenses to bring together all the displays you interact with on a daily basis – your PC, fridge, chair, mobile – into one personal display in your eye. Later, the same technology could be modified to bring in virtual images into the real world. For example, you could design the interior of your plain room with paintings, furniture and so on.
As show in the figure above, the LED part of the lens is opaque, but these little dark spots shouldn’t make the images unnoticed. A control circuit and a radio are also shown. They are used to gather the energy from a transmitter kept at the edge of the lens and convey the information to the outside. The design is made sleek enough in such a way that they do not block the view in any way. The lens was first tested on animals and they have proved to be working perfectly without any safety problems. The officials are waiting for an approval to test it on humans.
If this technology does become famous, the researchers will have to take special care in protection of the software side. That is, someone could easily pop up spams inside the control circuitry of the lens and block the view of a person, who may be busy driving his car.

Waterless Washing Machine Cleans Laundry Through Magnetic Levitation

New inventions have made strainful works always easier for people. Let us take an example of a washing machine. In early days, people used to wash their own clothes by hand and scrub all the dirt away using a brush and detergent. Later, the washing machine was invented, which simplified laundry cleaning. The device was further developed to produce semi-cleaners and lately fully automatic washing machines.
A new concept has been introduced by a a designer named Elie Ahovi, which works under the principle of magnetic levitation.
The device, named as “Laundry Orb” consists of a spherical drum that cleans clothes by scrubbing them using dry ice, instead f water. The spherical drum is basically a ring filled with batteries. These batteries produces magnetic levitation inside the ring. To levitate, a super-conductive metal laundry basket is introduced inside. A low temperature is required inside the ring. This is produced by using liquid nitrogen. A double layered shatterproof glass is also introduced inside. Thus, the whole drum levitates as soon as a magnetic field is produced. The whole process is controlled using a touch screen interface.
The dry ice is introduced inside the ring at supersonic speeds. As soon as it hits the dirty clothes, the carbon dioxide interacts with the dirt and separates them from the clothes. The dirt is then collected and filtered out through small pores. The carbon dioxide is then removed and re-frozen. Thus, the clothes are cleaned and dry.
The cleaning process will take only a few minutes. Since no water and soap is used, the clothes are prone to look new without any wear ad tear. The environment can also be protected to a certain extent by saving soap. Besides, we can use the surplus carbon dioxide for something useful.
Though the whole concept sounds interesting, there are certain cons. The removing of carbon dioxide and refreezing it requires a lot of energy.

Stereo headphone amplifier

LM4910 stereo headphone amplifier.

LM4910 belonging to the Boomer series of National Semiconductors is an integrated stereo amplifier primarily intended for stereo headphone applications. The IC can be operated from 3.3V ans its can deliver 0.35mW output power into a 32 ohm load. The LM4910 has very low distortion ( less than 1%) and the shutdown current is less than 1uA. This low shut down current makes it suitable for battery operated applications. The IC is so designed that there is no need of the output coupling capacitors, half supply by-pass capacitors and bootstrap capacitors. Other features of the IC are turn ON/OFF click elimination, externally programmable gain etc.

Circuit diagram.

Stereo headphone amplifier LM4910

Circuit diagram of the LM4910 stereo headphone amplifier is shown above.C1 and C2 are the input DC decoupling capacitors for the left and right input channels. R1 and R2 are the respective input resistors. R3 is the feed back resistor for left channel while R4 is the feed back resistor for the right channel. C3 is the power supply filter capacitor. The feedback resistors also sets the closed loop gain in conjunction with the corresponding input resistors.
Notes.
The IC is available only in SMD packages and care must be taken while soldering.
The circuit can be powered from anything between 2.2V to 5V DC.
The load can be a 32 ohm headphone.
Absolute maximum supply voltage is 6V and anything above it will destroy the IC.
A logic low voltage at the shutdown pins shut downs the IC and a logic high voltage at the same pin activates the IC.

Simple FM transmitter circuit.

Description.

A lot of FM transmitter circuits have been already published here. This just another one, a simple two transistor FM transmitter.The first stage of the circuit is a preamplifier stage based on transistor Q1. This is a collector to base biased amplifier stage where resistor R2 sets the collector current and R1 provided the necessary collector to base bias. C1 is the input DC decoupling capacitor which couples the input audio signal to the Q1 base. C8 is the power supply by-pass capacitor. Next stage is the oscillator cum modulator stage built around transistor Q2. Electrolytic capacitor C2 couples the output of the first stage to the second stage. R3 and R4 are the biasing resistors of Q2. R5 is the emitter resistor of Q2. Inductor L1 and trimmer capacitor C5 forms the tank circuit which is necessary for creating oscillations. The modulated FM signal is available at the collector of Q2 and it is coupled to the antenna using capacitor C9.

Circuit diagram.

Simple FM transmitter circuit

Notes.
The circuit can be powered from anything between 6 to 12V DC.
Using battery for powering the circuit will improve the performance and reduce noise.
A 9V PP3 battery is a good option.
If you are going with a battery eliminator, then it must be well filtered and regulated.
Trimmer C5 can be used for adjusting the transmission frequency.
Antenna can be a 1m copper wire.
L1 can be constructed my making 4 turns of 1mm enameled copper wire on a 10mm diameter plastic former.
Trimmer capacitor C6 can be adjusted for obtaining the maximum range.
Most of the components required for this circuit can be procured from your junk box.

IMAX – The Giant Step to Movies

Let a movie be in 3-D or an ordinary 70mm projection. We have always loved it for the story, sound effects, visual effects, and many other factors. But latest technologies have improved the way in which graphics and other effects have been introduced in each frame. Out of them IMAX is the most popular.
The Fox introduced the first 70mm format, the Fox grandeur in 1929. Later the Cinema scope and vista vision widened the image from 35mm. Then came IMAX with its advanced methods of film projection ever to be seen by anyone. The format was developed by a Canadian company called IMAX corporation, and hence the name. Today, it is estimated that IMAX is available in about 528 theaters in 46 countries. IMAX provides a better resolution and picture stabilization. IMAX Corporation has developed various projectors and standards for delivering a better viewing experience. IMAX has been used since 2002 in various theaters across the world. IMAX 3D is also gaining much popularity recently. Let us now take a look of the various technical aspects of IMAX.
The camera used in IMAX has a much larger frame and hence increases the resolution. IMAX aims at more precision than strength so it uses “ESTAR” base. IMAX format is generally called “15/70” film because of the 15 sprocket – hole or film thickness. For increasing the image area the sound track of the IMAX is recorded separately in another film and is synchronized with the main film. A separate 6 channel 35mm magnetic film which converts directly to analog is used for this purpose. For producing high quality 3D effects, the speakers in IMAX theaters are placed directly behind the screen and around the theater.

Conventional 70mm projectors are not able to produce 586 x magnification. IMAX projectors are pin stabilized which makes the film stable and ensures perfect alignment. The shutter speed of the projector is 20 times faster than the conventional projector and produces a brighter source of light. The light is produced from xenon short arc lamps made of fused quartz and xenon gas at a pressure of 25 atmospheres. The personals operating this projector should be skilled and must wear thick body armor while handling it. The quartz crystals and the xenon gas that produces the light could break easily and hurt the operator.
There are four types of projectors used in IMAX, namely GT (Grant theater), GT 3D (duel rotor), SR (small rotor) and MPX . All these projectors use the 70mm format. Theater construction for IMAX differs with respect to others. The audiences are allowed to site near the screen because of the higher resolution. The size of a standard IMAX screen is 22 x 16.1m.

IMAX 3D is a popular method for 3D vision in theaters . In IMAX 3D two separate cameras are used to generate the effect of 3D. The two cameras represent the right and left eyes. Separate film rolls should be there for each lens. When these two films are projected simultaneously the viewer will get an illusion of reality or a 3D image. The two lenses should be separated by a distance of 64 mm, which is the average distance between the human eyes. For creating 3D illusion the light from the two images are polarized. Eye glasses with left and right lens are polarized to match the projection. These glasses cancel the polarization and thus produce an illusion of 3D. The two projectors alternately display the film at a rate of 48 frames per second. LCD shutter glasses, which contain LCD panels, are used for this purpose and the eye sees only that image it intend to see.
Let us now see the technical specifications of IMAX
IMAX (15/70)
Spherical lenses also known as singlets which has the shape of the surface of sphere are employed in IMAX.
70 mm film is used and with 15 rotations per frame
When viewed from the base side we can see a right-left horizontal rolling stop movement is there
24 frames per second
The aperture of the camera is 70.41 X 52.63 (2.772 X 2.072 inc)
The aspect ratio is 1:44:1
The IMAX is used in various other purposes like Digital media remastering. The conventional films can be converted into IMAX format. The 1995 film Apollo 13 was the first to be converted into IMAX and it was released in 2002. The digital intermediate technology enabled the films shot in 35mm to be shown in IMAX venues. IMAX can undoubtedly be called as the film viewing technology of the future.