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Science has made great strides in the past few decades towards uncovering the basic principles underlying the brain’s ability to receive sensation and control movement. These discoveries, along with revolutionary advances in computing power and microelectronics technology, have led to an emerging view that neural prosthetics, or electronic interfaces within the brain for restoration or augmentation of physiological function, may one day be possible.

Real-time direct interfaces between the brain and electronic and mechanical devices can be used to restore sensory and motor functions lost through injury or disease. Hybrid brain–machine interfaces have the potential to enhance our perceptual, motor and cognitive capabilities by revolutionizing the way we use computers and interact with remote environments. Brain-machine interface provides a way for people with damaged sensory/motor functions to use their brain to control artificial devices and restore lost capabilities

New techniques for microstimulating neuronal tissue and emerging developments in microchip design, computer science and robotics have the potential to coalesce into a new technology devoted to creating interfaces between the human brain and artificial devices. Such technology could allow patients to use brain activity to control electronic, mechanical or even virtual devices, leading to new therapeutic alternatives for restoring lost sensory, motor and even cognitive functions.

INTRODUCTION

A brain-machine interface is an interface in which a brain accepts and controls a mechanical device as a natural part of its representation of the body. An immediate goal of brain-machine interface study is to provide a way for people with damaged sensory/motor functions to use their brain to control artificial devices and restore lost capabilities. By combining the latest developments in computer technology and hi-tech engineering, a person suffering from paralysis might be able to control a motorized wheelchair or a prosthetic limb by just thinking about it.

Before humans can use brain-interface techniques to control artificial devices, they must first understand how the brain gives commands. Brain-interface might work by recording neurological activity over long periods of time. The electrical activity of millions of brain cells (neurons) can be translated into precise sequences of skilled movements. Coordinated neuronal activity also provides with exquisite perceptual and sensorimotor capabilities.

The new technologies augment the human performance through the ability to noninvasive access codes in the brain in real time and integrate them into peripheral device or system operations.

BRAIN COMPUTER INTERFACE – AN EARLY DEVELOPMENT!

This describes the principles of a communication system called Brain Computer Interface (BCI). With this system user can control applications by using his/hers brain activity alone, no peripheral muscles or nerves are required. The brain activity can used for communication by classifying the activity to different tasks, which correspond to the functions in used application e.g. pressing a key or moving a mouse. The user concentrates to different mental tasks, which activate different functional areas

of the brain. This activity is measured as the Electroencepephalogaphy (EEG), and from

its certain features, usually the power spectrum of the EEG are extracted.

BCI is an interface in which a brain can talk with computer by

1. The computer system can learn what the brain is doing or going to do.

2. The brain can accept the command from computer.

EEG SIGNALS & MEASUREMENT - AN OVERVIEW:

The neurons in our brain communicate with each other by firing electrical impulses, this creates an electric field which travels though the cortex, the dura, the skull and the scalp. These electrical impulses are referred to as EEG. The fundamental assumption behind the EEG signal is that it reflects the dynamics of electrical activity in populations of neurons.

Frequency bands of the EEG :

Band	Frequency [Hz]	Amplitude [_V]	Location
Alpha (_)	8-12	10 -150	Occipital/Parietal regions
μ-rhythm	9-11	varies	Precentral/Postcentral regions
Beta (_)	14 -30	25	typically frontal regions
Theta (_)	4-7	varies	varies
Delta (_)	<3	varies	varies

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SMART SENSORS AND CONTROLLERS

ABSTRACT

Smart sensors are sensors with integrated electronics that can do one or move following functions:- Logic functions, two-way communication, make decisions. It consists of transduction element, signal conditioning electronic and controller or processor that supports some intelligence in a single package. This paper introduces concept of smart sensors and controllers systematically. The progress in the integrated circuits become possible because of the tremendous progress in semiconductor technology, resulted in the low cost microprocessor. By designing a low cost sensor which is silicon based the overall cost of the control system can be reduced. The usefulness of silicon technology as a smart sensor, physical phenomena of conversion to electrical output using silicon sensors, characteristics of smart sensors. The silicon sensor can produce output, as voltage, current, resistance or capacitances, output format can be analog or digital. Suitable signal conditioning circuits along with processor can easily designed using silicon technology. The presence of controller or processor in smart sensor has lead to corrections for different undesirable sensor characteristics which include input offset and span variations, non-linearity and cross sensitivity. As these are carried in software, no additional hardware is required and thus calibration becomes an electronic process. Reduced cost of bulk cables and connectors, cost improvement and remote diagnostics are the qualities of smart sensors. In this paper specifically laser based smart displaced sensor is explained, how smart sensors help anesthesiologist in Anaesthesia supervision is elaborated. An effort is made to demonstrate a prototype Sensor system. “Smart dishwasher controller”. Features of smart valve controller ends this paper.

INDEX

SR. NO.	CONTENTS
1	Introduction (Smart Sensors)
2	Usefulness of silicon technology in smart sensor
3	General architecture of smart sensor
4	Importance and Adoption of smart sensor
5	Laser Based Smart Displacement
6	Distributed smart sensor system
7	Application in Anaesthesia supervision
8	Introduction (Smart Controller)
9	Smart Dishwasher Controller
10	Smart Valve Controller
11	Conclusion
12	References

1. INTRODUCTION: We can have integrated a sensor, which has electronics and the transduction element together on one silicon chip. This complete system can be called as system-on-chip .The main aim of integrating the electronics and the sensor is to make an intelligent sensor, which can be called as smart sensor. Smart sensors then have the ability to make some decision. Physically a smart sensor consists of transduction element, signal conditioning electronic and controller/processor that support some intelligence in a single package. Definition: -Smart sensors are sensors with integrated electronics that can perform one or more function, a) logic functions b) two-way communication c) make decisions.

2. USEFULNESS OF SILICON TECHNOLOGY IN SMART SENSOR: There are very convincing advantages of using silicon technology in the construction of smart sensor. All integrated circuits employ silicon technology. A smart sensor is made with the same technology as integrated circuits. A smart sensor utilizes the transduction properties of one class of materials and electronic properties of silicon (GaAs). A transduction element either includes thin metal films, zinc oxide and polymeric films. Integrating electronics circuits on the sensor chip makes it possible to have single chip solution. Integrated sensors provide significant advantages in terms of overall size and the ability to use small signals from the transduction element.

Signal Conversion Effects:

Signal Domain	Examples (Measured)	Examples(Physical Effects in silicon)
Radiant Signals	Light Intensity, polarization	Photovoltaic-effect, photoelectric effect
Mechanical Signals	Force, pressure, flow, vaccum	Piezo-resistivity
Thermal Signals	Temp, Temp. gradient	Seebeck effect
Chemical Signals	Concentration, pH, toxicity	Ion sensitive field effect
Magnetic Signals	Field intensity, flux density	Hall effect

Different silicon sensors can be obtained by employing above effects. The silicon sensor can produce output as voltage, current, resistance or capacitance. Output format can be analog or digital. Suitable signal conditioning circuits along with processor can easily be designed using silicon technology. The presence of controller or processor in smart sensor has lead to corrections for different undesirable sensor characteristics, which include input, offset and span variations, on linearity and cross sensitivity. As these are carried out in software, no additional hardware is required and thus calibration becomes an electronic process.3. General Architecture of Smart Sensor: It is similar to a data acquisition system, the only difference being the presence of complete system on a single silicon chip. In addition to this it has on-chip offset and temperature compensation.

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VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION

MULTI FUNCTION METER USING VI

ABSTRACT: If u want to see & enjoy the world from your desk, virtual instrumentation(VI) is there for you, from real action gaming experience to the feeling of travelling in space, everything is possible by virtual instrumentation . If you have Virtual bug in your mind, clear it now.

what is virtual ?

1. It is here & we can see it REAL

2. It is here but we cann’t see it TRANSPARENT

3. It is not here but we can see it VIRTUAL

Virtual instrumentation sets a new standard in measurement by replacing benchtop instruments. It uses software like NI labview and hardware like PCI modules for data acquisition, instrument control and automation. VIs constructed with software are inexpensive, more accurate, maintenance free, can sense different physical quantities offering any range, compared to physical instruments. VIs works fast, handles repetitive tasks, processes data, stores results, generates reports, increases test safety and is controllable by the user. It saves time, money and increases productivity, customizability eg. Same code can be reused for testing similar instruments. For any lab instead of buying individual instruments, VI can be employed in a computer for all measurements.

As our part using labview

1. Proved Ohm's law, Kirchoff's current, voltage law and Thevenin, Norton theorems. We constructed the circuit in LabVIEW, interfaced with external circuit, tested and verified it with manual calculations. It would serve as a learning tool for beginners.

2. Demonstrated noise reduction using filters.

3. a multifunctional meter designed and developed using VI

What is virtual instrumentation?

Virtual instrumentation is a revolutionary concept that has changed the way engineers and scientists approach measurement and automation. VI means measurement without physical devices. VI is brought through easy-to-integrate software, such as the NI LabVIEW graphical development environment, and modular hardware, such as PCI modules. It is widely used for data acquisition and instrument control. VIs are viewable but not touchable i.e. no physical existence but performance is like a real instrument. It makes the computer and hardware to work for our wish. The basic requirements of VIs are a computer, a data acquisition card and software that supports it. The physical quantity to be measured is converted into an electrical quantity which is given to a channel input of the DAQ card e.g. a PCI module. The DAQ card is connected with the motherboard of the computer. . A vi can also send its output through the card to control external instruments.

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OPTICAL ETHERNET

Imagine this. You have been asked to manage the information services for a leading multinational bank. The financial institution, that supports 8 million Individuals, 1,50,000 business and over 1,00,000 corporate costumers. In addition you are responsible data centers hosting critical financial operations, e-services applications and databases for its 1,500 odd branches.

The most formidable adversary that you have to overcome is the issue of High-speed access and transfer capabilities for managing the huge amount of Voice and data traffic that spreads across wide geographical area. Addressing similar issues, 80 percent of the traffic in corporate intranets today, is through Ethernet, though at a smaller scale. While the Ethernet has been the simplest and the most reliable of the technologies used for local area networking, which actually obviates the issue of bandwidth, the primary concern has been that of reaching out to the core network that connect to the backbone. Thereby comes the thought of extending the capabilities of local area network (LAN) over a core network.

With the telecom sector being deregulated in India, many incumbents and emerging carrier networks have taken up the issue of bandwidth seriously. Optical fiber technology has provided access to a virtually, unlimited option in the core network.

In light of the recent debacles of the dot-coms, where in the world law a plethora of dotcoms mushrooming without proper business structures, and then law them closing operations equally soon, the recently opened up telecom sector needs to be treated with care. While molt of the existing and emerging carriers are hollering about bandwidth, which in fact is a core issue, nevertheless, they have not focused on providing their subscribers value-added services. Providing secure point-to-points connectivity with gigabit speeds is one area that ought to be liven a lot of thought.

Service provider providing solution for such issues came up with options like lease tine connections and wireless,and are also the means to this problem. It would be much simpler and coat effective if the power of the Ethernet in its native were exploited through the entire journey from the LAN, to the MAN, to the backbone.

In the wake of deregulation, most of the aspiring and existing telecos are just looking at providing a basic telephony and WLL. Most of them forget the being a longer race player, providing value added utility services is what the competitive environment demands. Just al important it providing a fast core networks facility, and the first and the last mile connectivity, which, unfortunately is suffering. This is where the problem is, as core network entry point traffic jams are the essence of the issue of solving the bandwidth problem.

What is necessary is the robust, cost effective, scalable end-to-end network based on one common language – the Ethernet. S more and business are upgrading LAN to fast Ethernet (100 mbps), to gigabit Ethernet (1000 mbps), and are looking to extend mission critical e-business extranets at native speeds to MAN and WAN, this provides a great opportunity for various players. IDC reports suggests by 2003, Ethernet based technologies will account for more than 97 percent of the word’s network connection shipments. This means that the market opportunities for service providers could reach $5 billion in that time frame.

These users would want to interconnect their LAN’s at native speed throughout tile network rather than having to go through service adaptations. The respite for them would come from what is called the “OPTICAL ETHERNET”. This technology attempts at combining the power of optical and the utility of Ethernet via an integrated business,

service providers optical network based on one common language-Ethernet technology.

By eliminating their need for translations between Ethernet and other transport protocols, such al t1, DS3 and ATM, optical Ethernet effectively extends an organization’s LAN beyond its four walls, enabling a radical shift in the way computing and network resources are deployed.

The idea is to capitalize on the de facto global LAN standard to network end to end. Ethernet no longer being just a LAN technology, has grown up from 1gbps to 10 gbps in the future. Thus, by marrying the of optical technology with the reliability, simplicity and cost- effectiveness of the Ethernet, optical Ethernet does more than just find answers o entry point log jams.

Unlike conventional public switched telephone network (PSTN) networks standards on which man topology rely upon Optical Ethernet uses a metro optical ring

that includes customer premises al a part of it, this server as a answer to problems of

managing lay. 2 service over layer 1wan infrastructure.This is done by connecting IP routers via layer 2 switches directly over the optical network .This is called resilient packet ring (RPR),and is implemented by integrating Ethernet interface with the optical

network elements.In simpler RPR converts a portion of the fiber optic ring into a logical Ethernet segment,which allow all or part of the bandwidth to be shared among RPR equipped optical network elements. This is combining the best of the worlds, synchronized optical network (SONET) and Ethernet, to form a true best of Bread solution.

Alook at the economics of RPR optical ethernet over packet over SONET and A TM over SONET, in terms of network coats in hubbed networks, is to the tune of 25 to 60 percent. This, apart from providing optimal optimized use of equipment, also demonstrates the fact that LAN interfaces are more economical than leased lines. This is because of the reduced number of interfaces required at the hub through the optical Ethernet RPR port consolidation, and the lower price of RPR and Ethernet router interface. While in the meshed network, the RPR optical Ethernet provides a 40 to 60 percent of savings al compared to PoS.

The shared bandwidth concept of RPR optical Ethernet allows the unused portion of the wan optical bandwidth to serve the revenue generating traffic. This delivers a 30 percent up gradation in the total bandwidth utilization.

Thus, on the whole, Ethernet remains the high runner for supporting high value added broadband and wideband services. The future belongs to service providers who can deploy a successful wan or man strategy. Or should we say extending the nativity of the LAN to core networks through optical Ethernet is the solution, and should provide food for thought to thought who want to run the race for long.